Human values and professional ethics
Human
Values and Professional Ethics
UNIT :I :Variety
of Moral Issues:- Understanding the
Harmony in the Society (society being an extension of family), Integrity, Work
Ethic, Courage, Empathy, Self Confidence, Moral Autonomy, Concensensus and
Controversy, Professional and Professionalism, Professional Ideas and Virtues.
1.0 OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this
course on ‘Professional Ethics and Human Values’ are: (a) to understand
the moral values that ought to guide the
profession, (b) resolve the moral issues in the profession, and (c)
justify the moral judgment concerning the profession. It is intended to develop
a set of beliefs, attitudes, and habits that engineers should display
concerning morality.
The prime objective is
to increase one’s ability to deal effectively with moral complexity in
engineering practice.
Alternatively, the
objectives of the study on Professional Ethics may be listed as:
(A) Improvement
of the cognitive skills (skills of the intellect in thinking clearly)
1. Moral
awareness (proficiency in recognizing moral problems in engineering)
2. Cogent
moral reasoning (comprehending, assessing different views)
3. Moral
coherence (forming consistent viewpoints based on facts)
4. Moral
imagination (searching beyond obvious the alternative responses to issues and
being receptive to creative solutions)
5. Moral
communication, to express and support one’s views to others.
(B) To
act in morally desirable ways, towards moral commitment and responsible
conduct
6.
Moral
reasonableness i.e., willing and able to be morally responsible.
7. Respect
for persons, which means showing concern for the well-being of others, besides
oneself.
8. Tolerance
of diversity i.e., respect for ethnic and religious differences, and acceptance
of reasonable differences in moral perspectives.
9. Moral
hope i.e., believe in using rational dialogue for resolving moral conflicts.
10. Integrity,
which means moral integrity, and integrating one’s professional life and
personal convictions.
1.1 MORALS
Morals
are the welfare principles enunciated by the wise people, based on their
experience and wisdom. They were edited, changed or modified or evolved to suit
the geography of the region, rulers (dynasty), and in accordance with
development of knowledge in science and technology and with time.
Morality
is concerned with principles and practices of morals such as: (a) What
ought or ought not to be done in a given situation? (b) What is right or
wrong about the handling of a situation? and (c)What is good or bad
about the people, policies, and ideals involved?
Morality is different from Ethics in the
following ways:
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Morality
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Ethics
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1.
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More general
and prescriptive based on
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1.
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Specific and
descriptive. It is a critical
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customs and
traditions.
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reflection on
morals.
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2.
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More concerned
with the results of wrong
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2.
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More concerned
with the results of a right
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action, when
done.
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action, when
not done.
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3.
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Thrust is on
judgment and punishment,
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3.
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Thrust is on
influence, education, training
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in the name of
God or by laws.
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through codes,
guidelines, and correction.
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4.
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In case of
conflict between the two,
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4.
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Less serious,
hence second priority only.
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morality is
given top priority, because the
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Less common.
But relevant today, because
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damage is
more. It is more common and
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of complex
interactions in the modern
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basic.
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society.
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5.
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Example:
Character flaw, corruption,
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5.
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Example: Notions
or beliefs about
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extortion, and
crime.
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manners,
tastes, customs, and towards laws.
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As against morals and ethics, laws are norms,
formally approved by state, power or national or international political
bodies. Breaking the norms is called crime, and invite specific
punishment.
1.2 VALUES
1.2.1 Definition
Humans have the unique ability to define their
identity, choose their values and establish their beliefs. All three of these
directly influence a person’s behavior. People have gone to great lengths to
demonstrate the validity of their beliefs, including war and sacrificing their
own life! Conversely, people are not motivated to support or validate the
beliefs of another, when those beliefs are contrary to their own.
People will act
congruent with their personal values or what they deem to be important.
A value is
defined as a principle that promotes well-being or prevents harm.” Another
definition is: Values are our guidelines for our success—our paradigm
about what is acceptable.” Personal values are defined as: “Emotional
beliefs in principles regarded as particularly favorable or important for the
individual.” Our values associate emotions to our experiences and guide
our choices, decisions and actions.
A person’s observations
on its environment are filtered through his values to determine whether or not
he should expend energy to do something about his experiences. A person who
values gold and sees a large bag of gold (a positive value) in his path as he
walks, will be motivated to reach down and pick it up. A person who values his
life and knows about venomous snakes will retreat from the sound of a
rattlesnake (a negative value) from nearby, when he is walking in the desert.
Said in another way,
“Values are the scales we use to weigh
our choices for our actions, whether to move towards or away from something.”
Not all values have the
same weight or priority. Some are more important than others and must be
satisfied before others can be addressed. Dr. Abraham Maslow illustrated
this with his hierarchy of human needs. Survival has a higher priority than
security, which has a higher priority than social acceptance. Self-esteem can
only be addressed to the degree that social acceptance is fulfilled. Similarly,
self-actualization can only be pursued to the degree that self-esteem has been
satisfied.
A person’s beliefs,
values and identity are usually acquired unconsciously based on his personal
experience or observations of others’ experiences as to what produces desirable
or undesirable results in the environment. A baby’s learning to walk and
talk is a clear example of identifying with human adults, valuing the act
of being able to have the mobility and communication ability of an adult and
the belief, based on unconscious observation, that humans can do walk and do
talk with each other.
Physiologists have
identified the parts of the human brain that are involved in producing behavior
in accordance with beliefs and values. All information collected by human
senses is passed through a net-like group of cells, known as the Reticular
Activating System (RAS), located near the top of the brain stem. The RAS
compares the data received with accepted values, positive and negative
(threats), and beliefs stored in memory and determines whether or not immediate
action is required. The results of the RAS’s comparison are communicated to the
‘amygdala’ near the mid-brain.
The ‘amygdala’ produces
neuro-chemicals that cause emotions consistent with the nature of and
proportional to the match between environment and values and beliefs. The
neuro-chemicals initiate the chemical processes needed for the action to be
taken. If the emotions produced are strong enough, the perceived information is
blocked from reaching the logical, rational and conscious executive center of
the brain, the pre-frontal lobes. In which case, the resulting behavior will be
automatic, not necessarily logical or rational, and completely in accordance
with the person’s strongest held beliefs, values and/or identity.
By positive
affirmations, one can modify or create new beliefs about a person’s identity
and/or what is important to him (values). Verbal repetition of statements
intended to become new beliefs, and values will result in these being stored
for use by the RAS for comparison with the environment being experienced. This
is the mechanism how the beliefs or values are modified.
1.2.2 Types of Values2
The five core human
values are: (1) Right conduct, (2) Peace, (3) Truth, (4) Love, and (5)
Non-violence.
1. Values related to RIGHT CONDUCT are:
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(a)
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SELF-HELP
SKILLS: Care of possessions, diet, hygiene, modesty, posture, self
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reliance, and
tidy appearance
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(b)
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SOCIAL SKILLS: Good behavior,
good manners, good relationships, helpfulness, No
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wastage, and good environment,
and
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(c)
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ETHICAL SKILLS: Code of
conduct, courage, dependability, duty, efficiency,
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ingenuity, initiative,
perseverance, punctuality, resourcefulness, respect for all, and
responsibility
2.
Values
related to PEACE are: Attention, calmness, concentration, contentment, dignity,
discipline, equality, equanimity, faithfulness,
focus, gratitude, happiness, harmony, humility, inner silence, optimism,
patience, reflection, satisfaction, self-acceptance, self-confidence,
self-control, self-discipline, self-esteem,
self-respect, sense control, tolerance, and understanding
3. Values
related to TRUTH are: Accuracy, curiosity, discernment, fairness, fearlessness,
honesty, integrity (unity of thought, word, and deed), intuition, justice,
optimism, purity, quest for
knowledge, reason, self-analysis, sincerity, sprit
of enquiry, synthesis, trust, truthfulness, and determination.
4. Values
related to LOVE are: Acceptance, affection, care, compassion, consideration,
dedication, devotion, empathy, forbearance,
forgiveness, friendship, generosity, gentleness, humanness, interdependence,
kindness, patience, patriotism, reverence, sacrifice, selflessness, service,
sharing, sympathy, thoughtfulness, tolerance and trust
5. Values
related to NON-VIOLENCE are:
(a) PSYCHOLOGICAL: Benevolence,
compassion, concern for others, consideration, forbearance, forgiveness,
manners, happiness, loyalty, morality, and universal love
(b) SOCIAL: Appreciation of other
cultures and religions, brotherhood, care of environment, citizenship,
equality, harmlessness, national awareness, perseverance, respect for property,
and social justice.
PERSEVERANCE is defined
as persistence, determination, resolution, tenacity, dedication, commitment,
constancy, steadfastness, stamina, endurance and indefatigability. To persevere
is described as to continue, carry on, stick at it (in formal), keep going,
persist, plug away, (informal), remain, stand firm, stand fast, hold on and
hang on. Perseverance builds character.
ACCURACY means freedom
from mistake or error; conformity to truth or to a standard or model and
exactness. Accuracy is defined as correctness, exactness, authenticity, truth,
veracity, closeness to truth (true value) and carefulness. The value of
accuracy embraces a large area and has many implications. Engineers are
encouraged to demonstrate accuracy in their behavior through the medium of
praise and other incentives. Accuracy includes telling the truth, not
exaggerating, and taking care over one’s work.
DISCERNMENT means
discrimination, perception, penetration, and insight. Discernment means the
power to see what is not obvious to the average mind. It stresses accuracy,
especially in reading character or motives. Discrimination stresses the power
to distinguish or select what is true or genuinely excellent. Perception
implies quick and often sympathetic discernment, as of shades of feelings.
Penetration implies a searching mind that goes beyond what is obvious or
superficial. Insight suggests depth of discernment.
Definitions of other
terms are given in the appropriate pages of this book.
1.2.3 Evolution of Human Values
The human values
evolve because of the following factors:
1. The impact of norms of the society on the
fulfillment of the individual’s needs or desires.
2. Developed
or modified by one’s own awareness, choice, and judgment in fulfilling the
needs.
3.
By
the teachings and practice of Preceptors (Gurus) or Saviors or religious
leaders.
4.
Fostered
or modified by social leaders, rulers of kingdom, and by law (government).
1.4 INTEGRITY
Integrity is defined as
the unity of thought, word and deed (honesty) and open mindedness. It includes
the capacity to communicate the factual information so that others can make
well-informed decisions. It yields the person’s ‘peace of mind’, and hence adds
strength and consistency in character, decisions, and actions. This paves way
to one’s success. It is one of the self-direction virtues. It enthuse people
not only to execute a job well but to achieve excellence in performance. It
helps them to own the responsibility and earn self-respect and recognition by
doing the job.
Moral integrity is
defined as a virtue, which reflects a consistency of one’s attitudes, emotions,
and conduct in relation to justified moral values. Further discussion on this
is available in Chapter 2.
1.5 WORK ETHICS1
Industry and Society
are the two systems which interact with each other and are interdependent.
Society requires industry/business system which provides manufacturing,
distribution and consumption activities. It needs investment (capital input),
labor (input), supply (raw materials), production (industries, business
organizations), marketing and distribution (transport), and consumption
(public, customer). A lot of transactions (and interactions) between these
sub-systems involving people are needed for the welfare of the society. It is
here, the work ethics plays an essential role.
Work ethics is defined
as a set of attitudes concerned with the value of work, which forms the motivational
orientation. The ‘work ethics’ is aimed at ensuring the economy (get job,
create wealth, earn salary), productivity (wealth, profit), safety (in
workplace), health and hygiene (working conditions), privacy (raise family),
security (permanence against contractual, pension, and retirement benefits),
cultural and social development (leisure, hobby, and happiness), welfare
(social work), environment (anti-pollution activities), and offer opportunities
for all, according to their abilities, but without discrimination.
Many complex social problems
exist in the industrial/business scenario, because:
1.
The
people desire to be recognized as individuals and treated with dignity, as
living human
beings.
Work is intrinsically valuable so far as it is enjoyable or meaningful in
allowing personal expression and self-fulfillment. Meaningful work is worth
doing for the sense of personal identity and the self-esteem it holds.
2. Economic
independence: Work is the major instrumental good in life. It is the main
source of providing the income needed to avoid economic dependence on others,
for obtaining desired materials and services, and for achieving status and
recognition from others.
3. Pay
as well as the pace of work should be in commensurate with the expertise
required, acquired, and utilized in the persons. Exploitation and bargained pay
should be discouraged.
4. Privacy
(personal freedom) of the employee, including women, is to be protected. At the
same time, confidentiality of the employer is also to be protected. Mutual
trust and loyalty both ways play major roles in this aspect.
5. Security
during job and upon retirement: This concept is being accepted only in
government jobs, public limited companies, and corporate organizations. The
western thought has
influenced the Indian private industries and
multinationals in a paradigm shift from ‘life-long employment’ to policies such
as ‘merit only’, ‘hire and fire’, ‘pay and use’ etc. This situation has no
doubt created tension in the Indian scene.
6. Recognition
to non-work activities, such as leisure, paid holiday on the day of visit of a
dignitary, social service, and other developmental
activities. The workers in prosperous countries are less willing to consider
‘work’ as their prime interest in life. They claim that
such service activities give them peace of mind
and happiness. However, such a trend is likely to decline the work
ethics.
7. Hard
work and productivity are very essential for the success of an industry. The
quality of
work life deserves to be improved. Hard labor,
undignified jobs (human-drawn rikshaw, people carrying night soil), and
hazardous jobs are to be made less straining, dignified, and
safer. Automation and CNC systems to a large extent
have been successful in lessening the human burden. Still, many a hard work can
not be replaced by ‘virtual work’, in the near future.
8.
Employee
alienation: Absence of or inadequate ‘recognition and reward system’ and
‘grievance
redressal system’, lack of transparency in policy
implementation, factions in trade unions etc. lead to ethical problems,
affecting the work ethics. Participative management, quality circles, job
rotation, and flexible working hours are some of the measures to counter this
situation.
9. A
different view of work ethics: Work is considered as a necessary evil. It is a
thing one
must do in order to avoid worse evils, such as
dependency and poverty. That is a major source of anxiety and unhappiness.
10. As
per the Protestant Work Ethics, the financial success is a sign that is favored
by God. It means making maximal profit is a duty mandated by God. It is to be
obtained rationally,
diligently, and
without compromising with other values such as spending time with one’s family
and not exploiting or harming others
To work (job), is not
for monetary considerations only. Human beings believe that it is good to work.
Work is good for the body and mind. It promotes self-respect, self-esteem, good
for the family, and obligation to the society and allow the world to prosper.
Work lays a moral and meaningful foundation for life.
That is why, work ethics affirm s that, the work per
se
is
worthy, admirable and valuable at personal
and social levels. It improves the quality of life and makes life purposeful,
successful, and happy.
By work ethics,
duties to the self, family, society, and nation are fulfilled. Rights of the
individuals are respected and nourished. Values and virtues are cultivated and
enjoyed by all human beings. Further, the quality of life is improved and the
environment protected. On the other hand, unemployment and under-employment
lead to frustration, social tensions, and occasional militancy. For a
developing economy and society, like ours, we need to promote work ethics,
at all levels, to flourish as developed nation
1.13
COURAGE
Courage is the tendency to accept and face risks and
difficult tasks in rational ways. Self-confidence is the basic requirement to
nurture courage.
Courage is classified into three types, based on the
types of risks, namely (a) Physical courage,
(b) Social courage, and
(c) Intellectual courage. In
physical courage, the thrust is on the adequacy of the physical strength,
including the muscle power and armaments. People with high adrenalin, may be
prepared to face challenges for the mere ‘thrill’ or driven by a decision to
‘excel’. The social courage involves the decisions and actions to change the
order, based on the conviction for or against certain social behaviors. This
requires leadership abilities, including empathy and sacrifice, to mobilize and
motivate the followers, for the social cause. The intellectual courage is
inculcated in people through acquired knowledge, experience, games, tactics,
education, and training. In professional ethics, courage is applicable to the
employers, employees, public, and the press.
Look before you leap.
One should perform Strengths, Weakness, Opportunities, and Threat (SWOT)
analysis. Calculate (estimate) the risks, compare with one’s strengths, and
anticipate the end results, while taking decisions and before getting into
action. Learning from the past helps. Past experience (one’s own or borrowed!)
and wisdom gained from self-study or others will prepare one to plan and act
with self-confidence,
succeed in achieving the desired ethical goals through ethical means.
Opportunities and threat existing and likely to exist in future are also to be
studied and measures to be planned. This anticipatory management will help any
one to face the future with courage.
Facing the criticism,
owning responsibility, and accepting the mistakes or errors when committed and
exposed are the expressions of courage. In fact, this sets their mind to be
vigilant against the past mistakes, and creative in finding the alternate means
to achieve the desired objectives. Prof. Sathish Dhawan, Chief of ISRO, was
reported to have exhibited his courage and owned responsibility, when the
previous space mission failed, but credited Prof. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam (now our revered
President),
when
the subsequent mission succeeded.
The courageous people own and
have shown the following characteristics, in their professions:
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(a)
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Perseverance (sustained hard
work),
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(b)
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Experimentation
(preparedness to face the challenges, that is, unexpected or unintended
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results),
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(c)
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Involvement
(attitude, clear and firm resolve to act), and
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(d)
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Commitment
(willing to get into action and to reach the desired goals by any alternative
but
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ethical
means).
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1.17 EMPATHY
Empathy is social
radar. Sensing what others feel about, without their open talk, is the essence
of empathy. Empathy begins with showing concern, and then obtaining and
understanding the feelings of others, from others’ point of view. It is also
defined as the ability to put one’s self into the psychological frame or
reference or point of view of another, to know what the other person feels. It
includes the imaginative projection into other’s feelings and understanding of
other’s background such as parentage, physical and mental state, economic
situation, and association. This is an essential ingredient for good human
relations and transactions.
To practice ‘Empathy’, a leader
must have or develop in him, the following characteristics5
1. Understanding
others: It means sensing others feelings and perspectives,
and taking active interest in their welfare.
2. Service
orientation: It is anticipation, recognition and
meeting the needs of the clients or customers.
3. Developing
others: This means identification of their needs and
bolstering their abilities. In developing others, the one should
inculcate in him the ‘listening skill’ first. Communication = 22% reading and
writing + 23% speaking + 55% listening
One should get the feed back, acknowledge the
strength and accomplishments, and then coach the individual, by informing about
what was wrong, and giving correct feedback and positive expectation of the
subject’s abilities and the resulting performance.
4. Leveraging
diversity (opportunities through diverse people): This leads
to enhanced organizational learning, flexibility, and profitability.
5. Political
awareness: It is the ability to read political and social
currents in an organization. The benefits of empathy include:
1. Good
customer relations (in sales and service, in partnering).
2. Harmonious
labor relations (in manufacturing).
3. Good
vendor-producer relationship (in partnering.) Through the above three, we can
maximize the output and profit, as well as
minimizing the loss. While dealing with customer complaints, empathy is very
effective in realising the unbiased views of others and in admitting one’s own
limitations and failures. According to Peter Drucker, purpose of the business
is
not to make a sale, but to make and keep a
customer. Empathy assists one in developing courage leading to success!
1.18
SELF-CONFIDENCE
Certainty in one’s own
capabilities, values, and goals, is self-confidence. These people are usually
positive thinking, flexible and willing to change. They respect others so much
as they respect themselves.
Self-confidence is
positive attitude, wherein the individual has some positive and realistic view
of himself, with respect to the situations in which one gets involved. The
people with self-confidence exhibit courage to get into action and unshakable
faith in their abilities, whatever may be their positions. They are not
influenced by threats or challenges and are prepared to face them and the
natural or unexpected consequences.
The self-confidence in
a person develops a sense of partnership, respect, and accountability, and this
helps the organization to obtain maximum ideas, efforts, and guidelines from
its employees. The people with self-confidence have the following
characteristics:
1. A self-assured
standing,
2. Willing to
listen to learn from others and adopt (flexibility),
3. Frank to speak
the truth, and
4. respect others’
efforts and give due credit.
On the contrary, some leaders
expose others when failure occurs, and own the credit when success
comes.
The factors that shape
self-confidence in a person are:
1. Heredity
(attitudes of parents) and family environment (elders),
2. Friendship
(influence of friends/colleagues),
3. Influence of
superiors/role models, and
4. Training
in the organization ( e.g., training by Technical Evangelists at Infosys
Technologies). The following methodologies are effective in developing
self-confidence in a person:
1. Encouraging
SWOT analysis. By evaluating their strength and weakness, they can anticipate
and be prepared to face the results.
2.
Training
to evaluate risks and face them (self-acceptance).
3. Self-talk
. It is conditioning the mind for preparing the self to act, without any doubt
on his capabilities. This make one accepts himself while still striving for
improvement.
4. Study
and group discussion, on the history of leaders and innovators (e.g., Sam
Walton of Wal-Mart, USA).
2.5
MORAL
AUTONOMY
Moral autonomy is
defined as, decisions and actions exercised on the basis of moral concern for
other people and recognition of good moral reasons. Alternatively, moral
autonomy means ‘self determinant or independent’. The autonomous people hold
moral beliefs and attitudes based on their critical reflection rather than on
passive adoption of the conventions of the society or profession. Moral
autonomy may also be defined as a skill and habit of thinking rationally about
the ethical issues, on the basis of moral concern.
Viewing engineering as
social experimentation will promote autonomous participation and retain one’s
professional identity. Periodical performance appraisals, tight-time schedules
and fear of foreign competition threatens this autonomy. The attitude of the
management should allow latitude in the judgments of their engineers on moral
issues. If management views profitability is more important than consistent
quality and retention of the customers that discourage the moral autonomy,
engineers are compelled to seek the support from their professional
societies and outside organizations for moral support. It appears that the
blue-collar workers with the support of the union can adopt better autonomy
than the employed professionals. Only recently the legal support has been
obtained by the professional societies in exhibiting moral autonomy by
professionals in this country as well as in the West.
The engineering skills
related to moral autonomy are listed as follows:
1. Proficiency
in recognizing moral problems in engineering and ability to distinguish as well
as relate them to problems in law, economics, and religion,
2. Skill
in comprehending, clarifying, and critically-assessing arguments on different
aspects of moral issues,
3. Ability
to form consistent and comprehensive view points based on facts,
4. Awareness of
alternate responses to the issues and creative solutions for practical
difficulties,
5. Sensitivity
to genuine difficulties and subtleties, including willingness to undergo and
tolerate some uncertainty while making decisions,
6. Using
rational dialogue in resolving moral conflicts and developing tolerance of
different perspectives among morally reasonable people, and
7. Maintaining
moral integrity.
Autonomy which
is the independence in making decisions and actions, is different from
authority. Authority provides freedom for action, specified within limits,
depending on the situation. Moral autonomy and respect for authority can
coexist. They are not against each other. If the authority of the engineer and
the moral autonomy of the operator are in conflict, a consensus is obtained by
the two, upon discussion and mutual understanding their limits
The criteria for achieving and
sustaining professional status or professionalism are:
1. Advanced
expertise: The expertise includes sophisticated skills and
theoretical knowledge in exercising judgment. This means a professional
should analyse the problem in specific known area, in an objective manner.
2. Self-regulation: One should
analyse the problem independent of self-interest and direct to a
decision towards the best interest of the
clients/customers. An autonomous judgment (unbiased and on merits only) is
expected. In such situations, the codes of conduct of professional societies
are followed as guidance.
3. Public
good:
One should not be a mere paid employee of an individual or a teaching college
or manufacturing organization, to execute whatever the employer wants one
to do. The job
should be recognised by the public. The concerted
efforts in the job should be towards promotion of the welfare, safety, and
health of the public.
2.8.2
Characteristics
The characteristics of
the ‘profession’ as distinct from ‘non-professional occupation’ are listed as
follows:
1. Extensive
Training
Entry into the
profession requires an extensive period of training of intellectual
(competence) and moral (integrity) character. The theoretical base is obtained
through formal education, usually in an academic institution. It may be a
Bachelor degree from a college or university or an advanced degree conferred by
professional schools.
2. Knowledge and
Skills
Knowledge and skills
(competence) are necessary for the well-being of the society. Knowledge of
physicians protects us from disease and restores health. The lawyer’s knowledge
is useful when we are sued of a crime, or if our business is to be merged or
closed or when we buy a property. The Chartered Accountant’s knowledge is
important for the success of recording financial transactions or when we file
the income return. The knowledge, study, and research of the engineers are
required for the safety of the air plane, for the technological advances and
for national defense.
3. Monopoly
The monopoly
control is achieved in two ways:
(a) the profession convinces the
community that only those who have graduated from the professional school
should be allowed to hold the professional title. The profession also gains
control over professional schools by establishing accreditation standards
(b) By persuading the community
to have a licensing system for those who want to enter the profession. If
practicing without license, they are liable to pay penalties.
4. Autonomy in
Workplace
Professionals engaged
in private practice have considerable freedom in choosing their clients or
patients. Even the professionals working in large organizations exercise a large
degree of impartiality, creativity and discretion (care with decision and
communication) in carrying their responsibilities. Besides this, professionals
are empowered with certain rights to establish their autonomy.
Accordingly physicians
must determine the most appropriate medical treatments for their patients and
lawyers must decide on the most successful defense for their clients. The
possession of specialized knowledge is thus a powerful defense of professional
autonomy.
5. Ethical
Standards
Professional societies
promulgate the codes of conduct to regulate the professionals against their
abuse or any unethical decisions and actions (impartiality, responsibility)
affecting the individuals or groups or the society.
UNIT II: Principals of Ethics and Morality:- Ethics as a Subset of Morality, Ethics and
Organizations, Employee Duties and Rights, Discriminatory and Pre-judicial
Employee Practices, Understanding Harmony in Nature, Natural Acceptance of
Human Values.
WHAT
IS ETHICS?
• Ethics is a derivative or subset of
morality, which is one of the main branches of philosophy
•
Other subsets of morality are political philosophy, jurisprudence or philosophy
of law, civics, ethos, etc.
•
What is philosophy?
•
It is “reflective critical thinking” on any issue or subject matter. The other
main branches of philosophy beside morality are: metaphysics (which studies the
fundamental questions of being or what there is in existence); epistemology
(which studies the fundamental questions about human knowledge); and logic (an
instrumental or procedural science concerned with the rules of correct thinking
or reasoning and argumentation)
WHAT
IS MORAL PHILOSOPHY?
•
Critical reflection on what is right/wrong, good/bad, in human conduct,
actions, behaviour
•
Ethics and politics are important derivatives/subsets of morality; along with
law they are the highly discursive aspects of morality, aimed at laying down
principles, guidelines, regulations and rules of action/conduct
• Medical ethics is particularly concerned
with the conduct and behaviour of members of the medical profession, especially
with the relationship between patients and health providers
• Biomedical research ethics strives to lay
down the principles and guidelines of morally acceptable research on human
subjects/participants
TOWARDS
CONCEPTUAL CLARITY
•
The terms ‘morality’ and ‘ethics’ are often used interchangeably but there is a
subtle difference between them
•
Ethics is a derivative or subset of morality; ethics has a narrower connotation
and application than morality
•
Laws, customs, ethos, taboos, civics, etc. are also derivatives or subsets of
morality • Morality generally is concerned with good/bad, right/wrong in human
actions or behaviour
•
This concern may manifest itself in various ways in various domains of human
activity
•
The main regulatory faculty/instrument for morality is reason or rationality –
a defining attribute of human beings
• There are no human beings anywhere that are
not concerned with morality
• Non-human creatures, because they do not
reason, are not concerned with morality or ethics • The necessary
pre-conditions of morality are rationality, sociality and freedom – all
defining attributes of humans
ETHICS
•
Ethics refers to the actively discussed aspects of morality and the set of
principles that can be conceived to regulate and by reference to which such
discussion is carried out
•
Ethics is a forensic science, whereas morality as such tends towards the latent
• Moral discourse, articulate moral reasoning,
argumentation/debate, belong in the domain of ethics
•
Morality as such tends to be quietly practiced and integrated into customs,
laws, ethos, ways of life, practices, etc.
•
Morality is basically the same for all humans everywhere at all times; what is
morally right or wrong cannot differ from place to place or from time to time;
moral diversity and disagreement are reflective of human limitations
•
Ethics, because it is the discursive and debated aspect of morality, may be
culture-tinted, place/time-sensitive and even coloured by particular interests
and circumstances
ETHICS
AND MORALITY
• Morality can be conceived sub specie
aeternitati, as if it were timeless and eternal
•
Ethics is necessarily subject to context, perspective, circumstance and
constraining human limitations
• Hence, we can talk about situation ethics,
utilitarian ethics, deontological ethics, medical research ethics, feminist
ethics, Nso’ ethics etc.
• Ethics, ethical principles and rules, need
constantly to be discussed, debated, reviewed/reformulated, to rid them of
purely spatio-temporal and contingent or accidental elements
• This is an unending task, because human
beings are fallible and limited beings and every human situation at all times
and places has its own ego-centric predicaments
• Read: Godfrey B. Tangwa, “Between
Universalism and Relativism: A Conceptual Exploration of Problems in
Formulating and Applying International Biomedical Ethical Guidelines”, Journal
of Medical Ethics, 30 (pp. 63-67), 2004.
TYPES
OF ETHICS
•
We could think of ethics and categorize them according to various subject
matters such as: bioethics, medical ethics, clinical ethics, economic ethics,
journalistic ethics, sexual ethics, etc.
•
We can also categorize ethics according to the approach or method used in
dealing with it
• Thus we can talk of normative or
prescriptive ethics which deals with moral norms and their justification,
non-normative or descriptive ethics which deals with factual investigations of
moral conduct and belief systems, and meta-ethics which is concerned with the
language, concepts and types of reasoning used in ethical discourse
• We can also talk about Christian ethics,
Confucian ethics, utilitarian ethics, deontological ethics, situation ethics,
virtue ethics, feminist ethics, etc
FUNDAMENTAL
PRINCIPLES OF ETHICS
•
Four fundamental principles of ethics have usually been recognized and widely
discussed in moral literature
•
These principles are: autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence and justice
•
In simple terms, these principles have to do with respect for all other humans
as moral equals, making sure that our actions are well-intended/motivated and
calculated to achieve good ends or results, avoiding the infliction of harm,
and treating others with fairness and equity
• Read: Tom L. Beauchamp and James f.
Childress, Principles of Biomedical Ethics (Fifth Edition), New York: Oxford
University Press, 2001.
SCOPE
AND APPLICABILITY OF THE FOUR PRINCIPLES
• The four fundamental principles of ethics are
equally relevant and important in medical ethics, clinical ethics, bioethics,
and morality generally, within all possible contexts and perspectives
• They are cross-culturally valid, although
the emphasis given to each and the way they are operationalized may differ
slightly from culture to culture, from place to place, from context to context,
and even from time to time within the same context
•
The four principles, in the terms, language and idioms we are discussing them
here are, of course, very much a paradigm of the western industrialized world,
where their relevance and urgent applicability have been made abundantly
manifest by various activities that violated or that run the risk of violating
them
• They, nevertheless, remain equally important
even where they seem to be lying dormant for want of stakes requiring urgent
discussion and application
•
You may not have heard of these principles or thought about them in these
terms, but if you reflect on the traditional moral ideas and practices of your
own traditional society you will realize that they are recognized and taken
into consideration in day to day living
An organization is
formed when individuals from different backgrounds and varied interests come
together on a common platform and work towards predefined goals and objectives.
Employees are the assets
of an organization and it is essential for them to maintain the decorum and
ambience of the workplace.
ETHICS:
THE CONCEPT
Ethics is defined as that characteristic which constitutes good and bad human
conduct and that which decides what is good and evil, right and wrong, and thus
what we ought and ought not to do. The ethical sense of right and wrong is
derived by a set of social values through which our actions can be tested. In a
social group, the ethical standards are set keeping the social values as the
base. Values are the central desires of individuals in any social group. They
are the choices that an individual makes to enhance the quality of his or her
existence. Ethical values are the set of values which are in accordance with
the social norms and help in the existence of the larger community. The values
that are considered important for the existence of the group lead to a
particular pattern of behaviour among the group member and thus become the
standards for future behaviour. In course of time, a few of these standards
gain legal significance.
ORGANIZATIONS
AND ETHICS
As in any
social group, ethics is inevitable in organizations. Research has already shown
that ethics does pay. Since unethical practices cost the industries billions of
dollars a year and damage the images of corporations, the emphasis on ethical
behaviour in organizations has increased over the recent years (Trevino, 1986).
Societal expectations and pressures from the legal and professional bodies have
forced the organizations to be more concerned about their social
responsibilities and ethical practices. In 1997, The Financial Times’ annual
survey of Europe’s most respected companies identified ethical problems as the
key reason for the dramatic drop in Shell’s ranking. The company turned upside
down in the aftermath of these unfavourable experiences and thus started
correcting itself in order to achieve a sustainable growth (Donaldson and
Dunfee, 1999). Similar to Shell, many organizations whose business practices
are perceived to be unethical and whose products are considered to be harmful
to the consumers (e.g., cigarette), face strong social condemnation. In recent
corporate history, the Enron and Arthur Anderson episodes underscore the
importance of ethical practices in business. Ethical problems are problems of
choice. They become problems not because of the peoples’ tendency to do evil,
but because of the conflicting nature of the standards and interests which are
valid in themselves. Problems in ethical decision-making and behaviour occur
only when the individual interests and the social norms conflict with each
other. Every organization is accountable towards its stakeholders–employees,
capital investors, consumers, government, competitors, suppliers, and other
community members. In most situations, the organizations are able to balance
its obligations towards these varied stakeholders. However, sometimes conflicts
do arise between the interests of two or more stakeholders. In such situations,
the more influential and powerful group could gain precedence over others to
protect their own interests. For example, though maximizing financial returns
is an organization’s obligation towards its shareholders, it could be at the
cost of ecological system or legal business practices. Managers under these
situations face the dilemma of whether to protect long-term interests of the
organizations or shortterm profits. The recent thrust on high output-driven
performance and reward linkages in organizations is driving towards short-term
interests. It might adversely affect the adherence to ethical norms in
organizations. In order to ensure ethical business practices in an organization,
it is important to have an ethical orientation among the people who own,
manage, and work for it. This could be achieved by adopting proper structures,
policies, and practices as they influence the ethical behaviour through flow of
communication and reinforcements of ethical choices. Various successful
organizations encompass ethical conduct as a critical measure in performance
evaluations and compensation. Jack Welch, one of the successful CEOs of GE,
insisted that the leaders of his organization should be oriented towards the
organizational value more than being highly result-oriented. He rated GE’s
top-level managers not only on their performance against targets but also on
the extent to which they ‘lived up’ to the GE values.
What is Organization Ethics ?
The way an organization
should respond to external environment refers to organization ethics. Organization ethics includes various
guidelines and principles which decide the way individuals should behave at the
workplace.
It also refers to the
code of conduct of the individuals working in a particular organization.
Every organization runs
to earn profits but how it makes money is more important. No organization should depend on unfair means to
earn money. One must understand
that money is not the only important thing; pride and honour are more
important. An individual’s first priority can be to make money but he should
not stoop too low just to be able to do that.
Children below fourteen
years of age must not be employed to work in any organization. Childhood is the best phase of one’s life and no
child should be deprived of his childhood.
Employees should not
indulge in destruction or manipulation of information to get results. Data Tampering is considered strictly
unethical and unprofessional in the corporate world. Remember if one is honest,
things will always be in his favour.
Employees should not
pass on company’s information to any of the external parties. Do not share any
of your organization’s policies and guidelines with others. It is better not to
discuss official matters with friends and relatives. Confidential data or
information must not be leaked under any circumstances.
There must be absolute
fairness in monetary transactions and all kinds of trading. Never ever cheat your clients.
Organizations must not
discriminate any employee on the grounds of sex, physical appearance, age or
family background. Female employees must
be treated with respect. Don’t ask your female employees to stay back late at
work. It is unethical to discriminate employees just because they do not belong
to an affluent background. Employees should be judged by their work and nothing
else.
Organization must not
exploit any of the employees. The employees must be paid according to their hard work and
efforts. If individuals are working late at night, make sure overtimes are
paid. The management must ensure employees get their arrears, bonus, incentives
and other reimbursements on time.
Stealing office property
is strictly unethical.
Organization must take
care of the safety of the employees. Individuals should not be exposed to hazardous conditions.
Never lie to your
customers. It is unprofessional
to make false promises to the consumers. The advertisements must give a clear
picture of the product. Do not commit anything which your organization can’t
offer. It is important to be honest with your customers to expect loyalty from
them. It is absolutely unethical to fool the customers.
The products should not
pose a threat to environment and mankind.
Employees on probation
period can be terminated anytime but organizations need to give one month
notice before firing the permanent ones. In the same way permanent employees
need to serve one month notice before resigning from the current services.
Employees can’t stop coming to office all of a sudden.
2. When the
activities of the employees form a conflict or interest (e.g., when
moonlighting).
3. When the
interest of the employer is getting damaged (if the employee transfers some
vital information on plans or strategies to the competitor).
3. Right to Due Process from
Employer
It is the right
to fair process or procedures in firing, demotion and in taking any
disciplinary actions against the employees. Written explanation should be
initially obtained from the charged employee and the orders are given in
writing, with clearly-stated reasons. Simple appeal procedures should be framed
and made available to all those affected. Fairness here is specified in terms
of the process rather than the outcomes.
4. Right to Equal
Opportunity—Non-discrimination
Discrimination
because of caste, sex, religion, creed, and language are regressive actions.
Discrimination which means a morally unjust treatment of people in the
workplace is damaging to the human dignity. For example,
(a) A
senior manager post is vacant. There is competent and proven candidate from
outside the state. A local engineer with lesser competence is promoted.
(b) Prize
amounts for the winners in the world sport events are not the same for men and
women.
5. Right to Equal
Opportunity—Sexual Harassment in the Workplace
The sexual
harassment is a display of arrogance and misuse of power through sexual means.
It is against the moral autonomy i.e., freedom to decide on one’s own body. It
is also an assault on one’s human dignity and trust. Sexual harassment may be
defined as the unwanted compulsion or attack on sexual requirements
(gratification) in the context of unequal power. It includes physical as well
as psychological attack or coercion and indecent gestures by men shown on women
or by women on men. Two such forms of harassment are found to exist. In one
type called ‘exchange of favors’, senior officers demand sexual favor as a
condition for giving a job, or granting a promotion or increment. It may be
either in the form of a physical or verbal threat or sexual offer. In another
type called ‘hostile work environment’, it is the sexually-oriented work
environment that threatens the employee’s right to equal opportunity.
Undesirable sexual proposals, advances, lewd remarks, mailing obscene
photographs are some of the typical examples of this type of harassment.
A rights
ethicist interprets this as a serious violation of human right to pursue one’s
job free from extraneous force, compulsion, punishment or threat or insult. A
duty ethicist would call it as a blatant violation of duty to treat human being
with dignity and individual freedom, and not to treat as inanimate object for
immoral gratifications. The utilitarian would expose the effect on the
happiness and the welfare of the victims, especially of women.
6. Right to Equal
Opportunity—Affirmative Action or Preferential Treatment
It means giving
a preference or advantage to a person of a group that was denied equal
treatment in the past. Such treatments are given especially to women and
minorities all over the world. It is also called ‘reverse preferential
treatment’, because it reverses the historical preferences
Understanding the
meanings and origins of prejudice and discrimination is essential to recognize
and correct discriminatory policies and practices.
"All people are
prejudiced." - Prejudice is an unfavorable opinion or feelings formed
beforehand or without knowledge, thought, or reason.
We regularly make
judgments or form opinions without examining all the information. This
information, whether correct and incorrect, comes to us through books, news
media, television, direct communication and other sources.
We may hold
preconceived opinions about people or groups of people. We base our opinions on
the ideas communicated by others or exposure to some members of a group. It is
important to remember that individuals within a group have their own unique
characteristics and abilities.
For example: If you
hold an opinion that women do not like to travel in their jobs and, for this
reason, you do not select a woman for a job requiring travel. You have
committed a discriminatory act (based on your prejudice); this is unlawful.
The
"categories" or "groups" protected from discrimination
under the laws are:
Race
and Color -- any race or color. National Origin -- any national origin.
Religion -- any
religion. (Reasonable accommodations for employee's religious preferences may
include changing tours of duty, granting annual leave, etc.)
Sex -- female or
male.
Sexual Harassment (sex
discrimination) -- is deliberate or repeated unsolicited verbal comments,
gestures or physical sexual contact that are unwelcome.
Age -- must be
40 years of age or older.
Physical or Mental
Handicap -- a disabled person is an individual who has a physical or mental
impairment substantially limiting one or more major life activities, has
a record of such an impairment, or is regarded as having such an impairment.
Coercion and Reprisal -
Aggrieved persons, representatives and all witnesses involved in presenting a
discrimination complaint are protected against coercion and reprisal. Reprisal
is taking an action against an employee because the employee opposed
discriminatory practices or participated in the discrimination complaint
process. Coercion is trying to influence an employee's testimony or
participation in the complaint process.
There are two theories
of discrimination. Adverse impact includes policies and practices that,
are not discriminatory in their intent. However, it may have a
disproportionately higher adverse impact on certain groups. Examples are:
Minimum height and weight requirements, when not
required for the job, may adversely affect women, or minorities.
English fluency, when not required for
the job.
Lifting requirements, when not required for the job,
may have an adverse affect on women and other groups.
The second theory of
discrimination is Disparate Treatment. The employer treats some people
differently based on their race, color, national origin, sex, etc. Supervisors
and managers may be accused of disparate treatment more often than adverse
impact discrimination. Examples of disparate treatment are:
Providing training opportunities to
males only
Disciplining
minority employees for tardiness while not disciplining, or giving lighter
penalties to non-minority employees
Not selecting job applicants 40 years of
age or older
Disparate treatment
occurs when our stereotyped assumptions (preconceived opinions) about certain
groups of people or because you like or dislike certain individuals is acted
upon. It is important that you treat all employees equally. Patterns of unequal
treatment could lead to a finding of discrimination even though there was no
discriminatory intent.
Coercion and reprisal
against individuals involved in complaints is also illegal. Evidence that
discriminatory intent played any part in employment decisions, proven by direct
or circumstantial evidence, which may support an inference that retaliation
played a part in the adverse treatment of an employee. Examples are:
Telling a witness that their job situation may be
difficult if they testify against management.
Instructing an employee about what
testimony to give.
Talking about disciplinary action against an
employee who participated in a complaint, or opposed a discriminatory practice,
but does not take action, or give lighter penalties to other employees who have
committed the same infraction.
When an employee participates in a complaint or
opposes a discriminatory practice, a supervisor treats the employee differently
from similarly situated non-protesting employees.
Retaliatory motives may be inferred when an employer
deviates from its written procedures or past practices to carry out adverse
action against a protesting employee.
The employer treats an
employee differently before the protected activity, including evidence that the
employer began surveillance.
Surveillance often is important, not as proof of
adverse treatment, but its presence suggests the possibility of a search for a
pre-textual bias for discipline. This suggests that subsequent discipline was
retaliatory.
The proximity in time strengthens an inference of
retaliatory motive in direct proportion to how close, the adverse action
follows the employer's notice of participation in the protected activity.
Coercion and reprisal are illegal. Filing an EEO
complaint does not permit an employee to miss work, fail to perform assigned
duties, or leave work without notice.
Employees or applicants
for employment who believe they have been discriminated against have a right to
file a complaint of discrimination.
STEP 1 -- Pre-complaint
Counseling
Pre-complaint
counseling is a prerequisite to filing a formal EEO complaint. The purpose of
counseling is to afford both the aggrieved person and the agency an opportunity
to achieve an informal and amicable resolution of the matter. This avoids the
trauma and cost of formal complaint processing.
The aggrieved person
must contact an EEO Counselor within 45 calendar days of the event or action
causing the alleged discrimination, or when the aggrieved person became aware
of the alleged discrimination. (The aggrieved person has a right to remain
anonymous during pre-complaint counseling and supervisors and managers must
respect this right.)
The EEO Counselor
serves as a bridge between employees and management seeking informal resolution
of matters leading to allegations of discrimination. The EEO Counselor may
interview supervisors, managers, and employees and examine all pertinent
records. The counselor should complete counseling within 30 calendar days of
the initial interview with the complainant, unless both parties agree to an
extension of not more than 60 calendar days. If the complainant agrees to
participate in the Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) process, as part of the
agency's counseling function, the counseling period will be 90 calendar days.
The primary focus of
counseling is the informal resolution of problems. Therefore, all individuals
involved in the dispute must assist the counselor to reach an acceptable
solution to the problem by considering all possible alternatives.
STEP 2 -- Formal
Complaint
If informal resolution
fails, the aggrieved person has a right to file a formal written complaint
within 15 calendar days after receiving the "Notice of Final
Interview" from the EEO Counselor. (Attempts at resolution should continue
throughout the complaint process.)
Acceptance of
Formal Complaints
For a complaint
to be accepted for processing, the following elements must be present:
Timeliness - Complaints must meet all time
requirements or the individual must show that they were not aware of the
requirements or circumstances beyond their control prevented filing.
Purview - To be within the purview of the
regulations, only an employee, former employee or applicant for employment may
file a complaint.
It
must relate to an employment matter under the agency's jurisdiction.
The alleged
discriminatory act must be based on the complainant's race, color, religion,
sex (including sexual harassment), age, national origin, handicap, or reprisal
in connection with the individual's involvement in a previous discrimination
complaint.
Specificity - The complainant must state the
issue(s) clearly, to permit a thorough investigation.
Identical Issues - The issues presented may be
identical to those filed in a previous complaint by the same person that is
pending or decided by the agency previously.
STEP 3 --
Investigation
If the agency accepts
the complaint for processing, it will appoint an Independent Investigator. The
Investigator will administer oaths, take sworn affidavits or verbatim testimony
transcribed by a court reporter. Management officials must cooperate fully. The
Investigator will develop the facts and make a written report for the National
Guard Bureau. The complainant will receive a copy of the completed Report of
Investigation.
STEP 4 -- Agency
Decision or EEOC hearing
The complainant is
advised that within 30 days from receipt of the investigation report, they may
receive an immediate final agency decision or a hearing and a decision by the
EEOC.
EEOC Hearing
The EEOC will appoint
an Administrative Judge. The aggrieved person, witnesses, and agency officials
will give sworn testimony. The findings provide the basis for the agency
decision.
Final Agency
Decision
The final agency decision will be in writing. The
agency's decision is final and there is no further appeal within the agency.
However, the aggrieved person has a right to: File notice of appeal with the
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, Office of Federal Operations,
or
File a civil action in
U.S. District Court, within 90 calendar days after receiving the agency’s final
decision or after 180 calendar days from the filing of date of a formal
complaint.
Remedial Action
When there is a finding
that an employee or applicant has been discriminated against, the agency shall
provide full relief, such relief may include:
Commitment to initiate corrective, curative or
preventive actions, to insure similar violations do not recur.
Placement of the victim of discrimination in the
position they would have occupied, but for discrimination, or a substantially
equivalent position.
Payment of back pay for any loss of earnings the
victim would have received, but for discrimination.
Commitment that the agency shall cease from engaging
in the unlawful employment practice found in the case.
Payment of compensatory damages. There
is a limit to the amount of damages paid.
NOTE: 1. The
circumstances of an individual case, may make other options to the
administrative process available. These "special procedures" apply in
age, mixed case, and Equal Pay Act complaints and when negotiated grievance
procedures could apply. Contact the EEO Manager or the Human Resources Office
for information.
NOTE: 2. The offending
official may be disciplined, however that is the Adjutant General's decision,
and not part of a settlement agreement.
Natural Acceptance of Human Values
Human
Values
Values makes us live meaningfully. they make
our life fragrant and beautiful. we enjoy happy relationships because of
inherent harmony in our being
Meaning of Acceptance
Acceptance in human psychology is the
persons assent to the reality of the situation ,recognizing the process or
condition without attempting to change
it, protest, or exit.
·
Self assessment is a systematic process
that is essential for career decision making and for ongoing professional
development
Meaning And Purpose Of Self Exploration
Ø It is a process of dialogue between
“what you are “and “what you really want be” : It is the
process of focusing attention on yourself, your present beliefs and
aspirations. Here from “ what you really want be” means what is naturally
accept to you. It is the process of discovering that there is something natural
and universal in all human beings. This enable us to look at our confusions
within and resolve them by becoming aware of our natural acceptance
Ø It is the process of self evolution
through self investigation :it enables you to
bridging the gap between between “what you are “and “what you really
want
be”
Enables means “Giving right”
ü It is the process of knowing oneself and through that entire existence
: The exploration starts by asking simple questions about yourself ,which gives
you clarity about your being and then clarity about everything around you.
Clarity means “giving clear view”
Process Of Self Exploration
v Self
exploration is about you alone by means of verification at the level of natural acceptance and experiential
validation
{verify
(within yourself) on the
Understanding
v VALIDATE
EXPERENTIALLY by living accordingly
Mutual fulfillment Mutual
prosperity
Content
Of Self Exploration:
·
Desire/goal : What is my desire /goal
?what do I really want in my life
·
Program : What is my program for
fulfilling the desire. How to fulfill my desire.
These
two things form the content of self exploration
Self
Development Tips
Be Proactive
Begin with end in mind
Put first thing first
Think win-win
Seek first to understood ,then to be
understood
Synergize
Sharpen the saw
Unit III : Risk Benefit
Analysis:- Reducing Risk,
The Government Regulators Approach to Risk, Handling Ethical Dilemmas at Work,
Market Strategy and Ethics, Ethical Practice in Market Place, Ethics in
Finance, Ethics in Business and Environment
4.1 SAFETY AND RISK
Safety was defined as the risk
that is known and judged as acceptable. But, risk is a potential that
something unwanted and harmful may occur. It is the result of an unsafe
situation, sometimes unanticipated, during its use.
Probability of safety = 1 – Probability of risk
Risk = Probability of occurrence ×
Consequence in magnitude
Different methods are available to
determine the risk (testing for safety)
1. Testing on the functions
of the safety-system components.
2. Destructive
testing: In this approach, testing is done till the component fails.
It is too expensive, but very realistic and useful.
3. Prototype
testing: In this approach, the testing is done on a proportional
scale model with all vital components fixed in the system. Dimensional
analysis could be used to project the results at the actual conditions.
4.
Simulation testing: With the
help of computer, the simulations are done. The safe boundary
may be obtained. The effects of some controlled input
variables on the outcomes can be predicted in a better way.
4.5 RISK-BENEFIT ANALYSIS
The major
reasons for the analysis of the risk benefit are:
1
To know risks and benefits and weigh them each
2
To decide on designs, advisability of
product/project
3
To suggest and modify the design so that the risks
are eliminated or reduced
There are some limitations that
exist in the risk-benefit analysis. The economic and ethical
limitations
are presented as follows:
1. Primarily
the benefits may go to one group and risks may go to another group. Is it
ethically correct?
2. Is an
individual or government empowered to impose a risk on some one else on behalf
of supposed benefit to some body else? Sometimes, people who are exposed to
maximum risks may get only the minimum benefits. In such cases, there is even
violation of rights.
3. The units
for comparison are not the same, e.g., commissioning the express highways may
add a few highway deaths versus faster and comfortable travel for several
commuters. The
benefits may be in terms of fuel, money and time saved, but
lives of human being sacrificed. How do we then compare properly?
4. Both
risks and benefits lie in the future. The quantitative estimation of the future
benefits, using the discounted present value (which may fluctuate), may not be
correct and sometime misleading.
3. Periodical
monitoring (inspection) and testing of safety system to ensure reliability,
e.g., fire extinguishers, ‘earth’ system in electric circuits are checked
periodically.
4. Issue of operation
manuals, training of the operating personnel and regular audits are adopted
to ensure that the procedures are understood, followed and the
systems are kept in working condition.
5. Development
of well-designed emergency evacuation plan and regular rehearsal/drills to
ensure preparedness, in case of emergency.
4.5.4 Voluntary Risk
Voluntary risk is the involvement
of people in risky actions, although they know that these actions are unsafe.
The people take these actions for thrill, amusement or fun. They also believe
that they have full control over their actions (including the outcomes!) and
equipments or animals handled, e.g., people participate in car racing and risky
stunts.
Testing becomes inappropriate when
the products are
1
Tested destructively
2
When the test duration is long, and
3
When the components failing by tests are very
costly. Alternate methods such as design of
experiments, accelerated testing and computer-simulated tests
are adopted in these circumstances.
3. Periodical
monitoring (inspection) and testing of safety system to ensure reliability,
e.g., fire extinguishers, ‘earth’ system in electric circuits are checked
periodically.
1
.Issue
of operation manuals, training of the operating personnel and regular audits
are adopted
to ensure that the procedures are understood, followed and the
systems are kept in working condition.
5 .Development of well-designed
emergency evacuation plan and regular rehearsal/drills to ensure preparedness, in case of emergency
5.2 ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS
Environmental ethics is the study
of (a) moral issues concerning the environment, and (b) moral
perspectives, beliefs, or attitudes concerning those issues.
Engineers in the past are known
for their negligence of environment, in their activities. It has become
important now that engineers design eco-friendly tools, machines, sustainable products,
processes, and projects. These are essential now to (a) ensure
protection (safety) of environment (b) prevent the degradation of
environment, and (c) slow down the exploitation of the natural
resources, so that the future generation can survive.
The American Society of Civil
Engineers (ASCE) code of ethics, has specifically requires that “engineers
shall hold paramount the safety, health, and welfare of the public and shall
strive to comply with the principles of sustainable development in the performance
of professional duties” The term sustainable development emphasizes on
the investment, orientation of technology, development and functioning
of organizations to meet the present needs of people and at the same time
ensuring the future generations to meet their needs.
Compaq Computer Corporation (now
merged with HP) was the leader, who exhibited their commitment to environmental
health, through implementation of the concept of ‘Design for environment’ on
their products, unified standards all over the world units, and giving priority
to vendors with a record of environmental concern.
Engineers as experimenters have certain
duties towards environmental ethics, namely:
1. Environmental
impact assessment: One major but sure and unintended effect of technology
is wastage and the resulting pollution of land, water, air and even space.
Study how the industry and technology affects the environment.
2. Establish standards: Study and to fix the
tolerable and actual pollution levels.
3. Counter
measures: Study what the protective or eliminating measures are
available for immediate implementation
4. Environmental
awareness: Study on how to educate the people on environmental
practices, issues, and possible remedies.
5.2.1 Disasters
1. Plastic Waste
Disposal
In our country, several crores of
plastic bottles are used as containers for water and oil, and plastic bags are
used to pack different materials ranging from vegetables to gold ornaments.
Hardly any of these are recycled. They end up in gutters, roadsides, and agricultural
fields. In all these destinations, they created havoc. The worse still is the
burning of plastic materials in streets and camphor along with plastic cover in
temples, since they release toxic fumes and threaten seriously the air quality.
Cities and local administration have to act on this, collect and arrange for
recycling through industries.
2. e-Waste
Disposal
The parts of computers and
electronic devices which have served its useful life present a major
environmental issue for all the developing countries including India. This
scrap contains highly toxic elements such as lead, cadmium, and mercury.
Even the radioactive waste will
lose 89% of its toxicity after 200 years, by which time it will be no more
toxic than some natural minerals in the ground. It will lose 99% of its
remaining toxicity over the next 30,000 years. The toxic chemical agents such
as mercury, arsenic, and cadmium retain toxicity undiminished for ever.
But these scraps are illegally
imported by unscrupulous agencies to salvage some commercially-valuable inputs.
Instead of spending and managing on the scrap, unethical organizations sell
them to countries such as India. This is strictly in violation of the Basel
Convention of the United Nations Environment Program, which has banned the
movement of hazardous waste. A recent report of the British Environment Agency,13 has
revealed that the discarded computers, television sets, refrigerators, mobile
phones, and electrical equipments have been dispatched to India and Pakistan in
large quantity, for ultimate disposal in environmentally-unacceptable ways and
at great risk to the health of the labour. Even in the West, the electronic
junk has been posing problems. Strong regulation including (a) pressure
on industries to set up disassembling facilities, (b) ban on disposal in
landfill sites, (c) legislation for recycling requirements for these
junk and (d) policy incentives for eco-friendly design are essential for
our country. The European Union through the Waste Electrical and Electronic
Equipment (WEEE)
directive has curbed the e-waste
dumping by member countries and require manufacturers to implement methods to
recover and recycle the components.
Indian Government expressed its
concern through a technical guide on environmental management for IT Industry
in December, 2004. It is yet to ratify the ban on movement of hazardous waste
according to the Basel Convention. A foreign news agency exposed a few years
back, the existence of a thriving e-waste disposal hub in a suburb of New
Delhi, operating in appallingly dangerous conditions. Our country needs
regulations to define waste, measures to stop illegal imports, and
institutional structures to handle safe disposal of domestic industrial scrap.
3. Industrial
Waste Disposal
There has been a lot of
complaints through the media, on (a) against the Sterlite Copper
Smelting Plant in Thuthukkudi (1997) against its pollution, and (b) when
Indian companies imported the discarded French Warship Clemenceau for disposal,
the poisonous asbestos compounds were expected to pollute the atmosphere
besides exposing the labor to a great risk, during the disposal. The government
did not act immediately. Fortunately for Indians, the French Government
intervened and withdrew the ship, and the serious threat was averted!
4. Depletion of
Ozone Layer
The ozone layer protects
the entire planet from the ill-effects of ultraviolet radiation and is vital
for all living organisms in this world. But it is eaten away by the
Chloro-fluro-carbons (CFC) such as freon emanating from the
refrigerators, air conditioners, and aerosol can spray. This has caused also
skin cancer to sun-bathers in the Western countries. Further NO and NO2 gases
were also found to react with the ozone. Apart from engineers, the
organizations, laws of the country and local administration and market
mechanisms are required to take up concerted efforts to protect the
environment.
5. Global Warming
Over the past 30 years, the Earth
has warmed by 0.6 °C. Over the last 100 years, it has warmed by 0.8 °C. It is
likely to push up temperature by 3 oC by
2100, according to NASA’s studies. The U.S. administration has accepted the
reality of global climate change, which has been associated with stronger
hurricanes, severe droughts, intense heat waves and the melting of polar ice.
Greenhouse gases, notably carbon dioxide emitted by motor vehicles and
coal-fired power plants, trap heat like the glass walls of a greenhouse, cause
the Earth to warm up. Delegates from the six countries — Australia, China,
India, Japan, South Korea and US met in California in April 2006 for the first
working session of the Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and
Climate. These six countries account for about half of the world’s emissions of
climate-heating greenhouse gases. Only one of the six, Japan, is committed to reducing
greenhouse gas emissions by at least 5.2 per cent below 1990 levels by 2012
under the Kyoto Agreement.
About 190 nations met in Germany
in the middle of May 2006 and tried to bridge vast policy gaps between the
United States and its main allies over how to combat climate change amid
growing evidence that the world is warming that could wreak havoc by stoking
more droughts, heat waves, floods, more powerful storms and raise global sea
levels by almost a meter by 2100.
6. Acid Rain
Large emissions of sulphur oxides
and nitrous oxides are being released in to the air from the thermal power
stations using the fossil fuels, and several processing industries. These gases
form compounds with water in the air and precipitates as rain or snow on to the
earth. The acid rain in some parts of the world has caused sufficient damage to
the fertility of the land and to the human beings.
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